Architecture of a network-in-the-Loop environment for characterizing AC power system behavior

This paper describes the method by which a large hardware-in-the-loop environment has been realized for three-phase ac power systems. The environment allows an entire laboratory power-network topology (generators, loads, controls, protection devices, and switches) to be placed in the loop of a large power-network simulation. The system is realized by using a realtime power-network simulator, which interacts with the hardware via the indirect control of a large synchronous generator and by measuring currents flowing from its terminals. These measured currents are injected into the simulation via current sources to close the loop. This paper describes the system architecture and, most importantly, the calibration methodologies which have been developed to overcome measurement and loop latencies. In particular, a new "phase advance" calibration removes the requirement to add unwanted components into the simulated network to compensate for loop delay. The results of early commissioning experiments are demonstrated. The present system performance limits under transient conditions (approximately 0.25 Hz/s and 30 V/s to contain peak phase-and voltage-tracking errors within 5. and 1%) are defined mainly by the controllability of the synchronous generator

Frequency and fundamental signal measurement algorithms for distributed control and protection applications

Increasing penetration of distributed generation within electricity networks leads to the requirement for cheap, integrated, protection and control systems. To minimise cost, algorithms for the measurement of AC voltage and current waveforms can be implemented on a single microcontroller, which also carries out other protection and control tasks, including communication and data logging. This limits the frame rate of the major algorithms, although analogue to digital converters (ADCs) can be oversampled using peripheral control processors on suitable microcontrollers. Measurement algorithms also have to be tolerant of poor power quality, which may arise within grid-connected or islanded (e.g. emergency, battlefield or marine) power system scenarios. This study presents a 'Clarke-FLL hybrid' architecture, which combines a three-phase Clarke transformation measurement with a frequency-locked loop (FLL). This hybrid contains suitable algorithms for the measurement of frequency, amplitude and phase within dynamic three-phase AC power systems. The Clarke-FLL hybrid is shown to be robust and accurate, with harmonic content up to and above 28% total harmonic distortion (THD), and with the major algorithms executing at only 500 samples per second. This is achieved by careful optimisation and cascaded use of exact-time averaging techniques, which prove to be useful at all stages of the measurements: from DC bias removal through low-sample-rate Fourier analysis to sub-harmonic ripple removal. Platform-independent algorithms for three-phase nodal power flow analysis are benchmarked on three processors, including the Infineon TC1796 microcontroller, on which only 10% of the 2000 mus frame time is required, leaving the remainder free for other algorithms

P-class phasor measurement unit algorithms using adaptive filtering to enhance accuracy at off-nominal frequencies

While the present standard C.37.118-2005 for Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) requires testing only at steady-state conditions, proposed new versions of the standard require much more stringent testing, involving frequency ramps and off-nominal frequency testing. This paper presents two new algorithms for “P Class” PMUs which enable performance at off-nominal frequencies to be retained at levels comparable to the performance for nominal frequency input. The performances of the algorithms are compared to the “Basic” Synchrophasor Estimation Model described in the new standard. The proposed algorithms show a much better performance than the “Basic” algorithm, particularly in the measurements of frequency and rate-of-change-of-frequency at off-nominal frequencies and in the presence of unbalance and harmonics

P and M class phasor measurement unit algorithms using adaptive cascaded filters

The new standard C37.118.1 lays down strict performance limits for phasor measurement units (PMUs) under steady-state and dynamic conditions. Reference algorithms are also presented for the P (performance) and M (measurement) class PMUs. In this paper, the performance of these algorithms is analysed during some key signal scenarios, particularly those of off-nominal frequency, frequency ramps, and harmonic contamination. While it is found that total vector error (TVE) accuracy is relatively easy to achieve, the reference algorithm is not able to achieve a useful ROCOF (rate of change of frequency) accuracy. Instead, this paper presents alternative algorithms for P and M class PMUs which use adaptive filtering techniques in real time at up to 10 kHz sample rates, allowing consistent accuracy to be maintained across a ±33% frequency range. ROCOF errors can be reduced by factors of >40 for P class and >100 for M class devices

Methodology for testing loss of mains detection algorithms for microgrids and distributed generation using real-time power hardware–in-the-loop based technique

The effective integration of distributed energy resources in distribution networks demands powerful simulation and test methods in order to determine both system and component behaviour, and understand their interaction. Unexpected disconnection of a significant volume of distributed generation (DG) could have potentially serious consequences for the entire system [1], this means DG sources can no longer be treated as purely negative load. This paper proposes a method of testing loss-of-mains (LOM) detection and protection schemes for distributed energy resources (DER) using real-time power hardware-in-the-loop (RT PHIL). The approach involves connecting the generator and interface under test (e.g. motor-generator set or inverter, controlled by an RTS – Real Time Station[3]) to a real-time simulator (an RTDS – Real Time Digital Simulator[2]) which simulates the local loads and upstream power system. This arrangement allows observation of the interaction with other controls in the network beyond the local microgrid area. These LOM schemes are of increasing importance because with growing penetration levels of distributed generation the network operator has less visibility and control of the connected generation. Furthermore when the generation and load in a particular network area are closely matched (e.g. a grid-connected microgrid), it becomes increasingly difficult to detect a loss of grid supply at the generator. This work builds upon the existing LOM testing methodology proposed in [4]. By utilising RT PHIL and a laboratory microgrid, the testing environment has been brought to a new level of functionality where system integrity can be more rigorously and realistically evaluated

Proton damage comparison of an e2v technologies n-channel and p-channel CCD204

Comparisons have been made of the relative degradation of charge transfer efficiency in n-channel and p-channel CCDs subjected to proton irradiation. The comparison described in this paper was made using e2v technologies plc. CCD204 devices fabricated using the same mask set. The device performance was compared over a range of temperatures using the same experimental arrangement and technique to provide a like-for-like comparison. The parallel transfer using the p-channel CCD was then optimized using a trap pumping technique to identify the optimal operating conditions at 153 K

Tradeoffs between AC power quality and DC bus ripple for 3-phase 3-wire inverter-connected devices within microgrids

Visions of future power systems contain high penetrations of inverters which are used to convert power from dc (direct current) to ac (alternating current) or vice versa. The behavior of these devices is dependent upon the choice and implementation of the control algorithms. In particular, there is a tradeoff between dc bus ripple and ac power quality. This study examines the tradeoffs. Four control modes are examined. Mathematical derivations are used to predict the key implications of each control mode. Then, an inverter is studied both in simulation and in hardware at the 10 kVA scale, in different microgrid environments of grid impedance and power quality. It is found that voltage-drive mode provides the best ac power quality, but at the expense of high dc bus ripple. Sinusoidal current generation and dual-sequence controllers provide relatively low dc bus ripple and relatively small effects on power quality. High-bandwidth dc bus ripple minimization mode works well in environments of low grid impedance, but is highly unsuitable within higher impedance microgrid environments and/or at low switching frequencies. The findings also suggest that the certification procedures given by G5/4, P29 and IEEE 1547 are potentially not adequate to cover all applications and scenarios

Refinement of numerical models and parametric study of SOFC stack performance

The presence of multiple air and fuel channels per fuel cell and the need to combine many cells in series result in complex steady-state temperature distributions within Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) stacks. Flow distribution in these channels, when non-uniform, has a significant effect on cell and stack performance. Large SOFC stacks are very difficult to model using full 3-D CFD codes because of the resource requirements needed to solve for the many scales involved. Studies have shown that implementations based on Reduced Order Methods (ROM), if calibrated appropriately, can provide simulations of stacks consisting of more than 20 cells with reasonable computational effort.;A pseudo 2-D SOFC stack model capable of studying co-flow and counter-flow cell geometries was developed by solving multiple 1-D SOFC single cell models in parallel on a Beowulf cluster. In order to study cross-flow geometries a novel Multi-Component Multi-Physics (MCMP) scheme was instantiated to produce a Reduced Order 3-D Fuel Cell Model. A C++ implementation of the MCMP scheme developed in this study utilized geometry, control volume, component, and model structures allowing each physical model to be solved only for those components for which it is relevant. Channel flow dynamics were solved using a 1-D flow model to reduce computational effort.;A parametric study was conducted to study the influence of mass flow distribution, radiation, and stack size on fuel cell stack performance. Using the pseudo 2-D planar SOFC stack model with stacks of various sizes from 2 to 40 cells it was shown that, with adiabatic wall conditions, the asymmetry of the individual cell can produce a temperature distribution where high and low temperatures are found in the top and bottom cells, respectively. Heat transfer mechanisms such as radiation were found to affect the reduction of the temperature gradient near the top and bottom cell. Results from the reduced order 3-D fuel cell model showed that greater thermal gradients can be observed in the cross-flow geometry than in the co-flow geometry

Demonstration of sustained and useful converter responses during balanced and unbalanced faults in microgrids

In large power grids where converter penetration is presently low and the network impedance is predominantly reactive, the required response from converters during faults is presently specified by phrases such as “maximum reactive output”. However, in marine and aero power systems most faults are unbalanced, the network impedance is resistive, and converter penetration may be high. Therefore a balanced reactive fault current response to an unbalanced fault may lead to over-voltages or over/under frequency events. Instead, this paper presents a method of controlling the converter as a balanced voltage source behind a reactance, thereby emulating the fault response of a synchronous generator (SG) as closely as possible. In this mode there is a risk of converter destruction due to overcurrent. A new way of preventing destruction but still providing fault performance as close to a SG as possible is presented. Demonstrations are presented of simulations and laboratory testing at the 10kVA 400V scale, with balanced and unbalanced faults. Currents can be limited to about 1.5pu while still providing appropriate unbalanced fault response within a resistive network

Extracting individual trees from lidar point clouds using treeseg

Recent studies have demonstrated the potential of lidar-derived methods in plant ecology and forestry. One limitation to these methods is accessing the information content of point clouds, from which tree-scale metrics can be retrieved. This is currently undertaken through laborious and time-consuming manual segmentation of tree-level point clouds from larger-area point clouds, an effort that is impracticable across thousands of stems. Here, we present treeseg, an open-source software to automate this task. This method utilises generic point cloud processing techniques including Euclidean clustering, principal component analysis, region-based segmentation, shape fitting and connectivity testing. This data-driven approach uses few a priori assumptions of tree architecture, and transferability across lidar instruments is constrained only by data quality requirements. We demonstrate the treeseg algorithm here on data acquired from both a structurally simple open forest and a complex tropical forest. Across these data, we successfully automatically extract 96% and 70% of trees, respectively, with the remainder requiring some straightforward manual segmentation. treeseg allows ready and quick access to tree-scale information contained in lidar point clouds. treeseg should help contribute to more wide-scale uptake of lidar-derived methods to applications ranging from the estimation of carbon stocks through to descriptions of plant form and function